Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution

Why Britain?

Britain was the first nation to undergo modern industrialization, a process termed the "first industrial revolution," spanning roughly from the 1780s to the 1850s. This transformation was facilitated by several factors: political stability since the seventeenth century, a unified monarchy with common laws and currency, and a market not fragmented by internal taxes, which kept prices reasonable. The widespread use of money as a medium of exchange by the late seventeenth century, with many people earning wages, expanded the market for goods. An "agricultural revolution" in the eighteenth century saw larger landowners consolidating land, increasing food production and displacing rural populations who then sought work in towns. Britain's towns grew significantly in area and population, with London serving as a major hub for domestic and global trade. By the eighteenth century, global trade shifted towards Atlantic ports in Holland and Britain, with London becoming a financial center for international trade and the hub of a triangular trade network involving England, Africa, and the West Indies. A well-developed transport network of navigable rivers and an indented coastline with sheltered bays facilitated the movement of goods. The Bank of England, founded in 1694, and a proliferation of provincial banks provided the financial capital needed for large industrial enterprises. These factors, combined with technological advancements, laid the groundwork for Britain's industrial dominance.

Political Stability and Unified Market

Britain enjoyed political stability from the seventeenth century, with a unified monarchy, common laws, and a single currency, creating a cohesive market free from internal taxes that inflated prices.

Monetary Economy and Wages

By the late seventeenth century, a monetary economy was widespread, with many people receiving wages, increasing consumer choice and expanding the market for goods.

The Agricultural Revolution

In the eighteenth century, larger landowners consolidated land, increasing food production and displacing rural populations, who then migrated to towns seeking employment, providing a labor force for nascent industries.

Towns, Trade and Finance

British towns grew significantly in population and economic importance. London became a global trade hub and financial center, supported by a robust banking system that provided capital for industrial development.

Transport Network

Britain possessed an advantageous transport network of navigable rivers and an indented coastline, facilitating the cheaper and faster movement of goods compared to land transport, crucial for industrial growth.

Coal and Iron

Britain's industrialization was significantly aided by its abundant natural resources, particularly coal and iron ore, essential for mechanization. While other minerals like lead, copper, and tin were also available, the scarcity of usable iron due to reliance on charcoal for smelting presented a challenge. Charcoal was fragile for transport, produced low-quality iron, and was in short supply due to deforestation. Abraham Darby I's invention of a blast furnace in 1709, using coke derived from coal to generate higher temperatures, revolutionized iron production by freeing furnaces from charcoal dependence. This allowed for finer and larger iron castings. Subsequent innovations by Abraham Darby II (wrought iron) and Henry Cort (puddling furnace and rolling mill) further refined iron production, making it possible to create a wider range of durable iron products. John Wilkinson pioneered cast iron applications, including water pipes and the world's first iron bridge. Britain's iron industry thrived due to the concentration of high-quality coking coal and iron ore in the same basins, often near ports, facilitating production and trade. The industry quadrupled its output between 1800 and 1830, producing the cheapest iron in Europe, with Britain smelting more iron than the rest of the world combined by 1848.

Scarcity of Usable Iron and the Charcoal Problem

Historically, the production of usable iron was limited by the reliance on charcoal for smelting, which was scarce due to deforestation, fragile for transport, and could not generate sufficient temperatures for high-quality iron.

Abraham Darby and the Blast Furnace

Abraham Darby I's invention of the blast furnace in 1709, which used coke (derived from coal) instead of charcoal, revolutionized iron production by enabling higher temperatures and thus finer, larger iron castings.

Refinement of Iron Production

Further innovations, including the development of wrought iron and the puddling furnace and rolling mill by Henry Cort, improved the quality and versatility of iron products, making it a superior material to wood for various applications.

Iron Industry Concentration and Output

Britain's iron industry benefited from the proximity of coal and iron ore deposits, often near ports, facilitating production and trade. The industry saw a quadrupling of output between 1800 and 1830, with Britain smelting more iron than the rest of the world combined by 1848.

Cotton Spinning and Weaving

Britain historically produced wool and flax textiles but, from the seventeenth century, began importing cotton cloth from India. With increasing political control over parts of India, the East India Company started importing raw cotton for English manufacture. Initially, spinning was slow, requiring ten spinners for one weaver. However, a series of technological inventions bridged the gap between spinning and weaving speeds, gradually shifting production from homes to factories. By the 1780s, the cotton industry symbolized British industrialization, characterized by reliance on imported raw cotton and significant cloth exports, sustaining colonial expansion. The industry heavily employed women and children, often in harsh conditions with long hours and strict discipline, highlighting the exploitative side of early industrialization.

Key inventions included John Kay's flying shuttle (1733), which increased weaving speed, demanding more yarn. James Hargreaves's spinning jenny (1765) allowed one person to spin multiple threads. Richard Arkwright's water frame (1769) produced stronger thread, enabling pure cotton fabrics. Samuel Crompton's mule (1779) spun strong and fine yarn. Edmund Cartwright's power loom (1787) further increased efficiency, weaving any material easily. By the 1830s, focus shifted to increasing worker productivity through improved machines.

Import of Raw Cotton and Finished Cloth

Britain imported raw cotton from India and exported a significant portion of its finished cotton cloth, a model that sustained colonial expansion by controlling both raw material sources and markets.

Technological Inventions in the Cotton Industry

A series of inventions, including the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, water frame, mule, and power loom, revolutionized cotton production by dramatically increasing the speed and efficiency of spinning and weaving.

Shift from Homes to Factories

Technological advancements made production more efficient, leading to a gradual shift of cotton manufacturing from the homes of spinners and weavers to factories.

Features of the Cotton Industry

The cotton industry relied heavily on imported raw materials and foreign markets, exemplified by its strong ties to colonial expansion. It also extensively employed women and children, often under harsh working conditions.

Steam Power

The realization that steam could generate immense power was crucial for large-scale industrialization. While water power had been used for centuries, it was geographically limited and dependent on seasons and water flow. Steam power, however, provided reliable, inexpensive energy at high temperatures, enabling the operation of a wide range of machinery, including the production of machinery itself. Early steam engines, like Thomas Savery's "Miner's Friend" (1698) and Thomas Newcomen's engine (1712), were primarily used for draining mines but had limitations. James Watt's significant improvement in 1769 transformed the steam engine from a simple pump into a versatile "prime mover" capable of powering factory machinery. With the backing of Matthew Boulton, Watt established the Soho Foundry, mass-producing his engines. By the end of the eighteenth century, Watt's engines began replacing hydraulic power. Further developments after 1800, utilizing lighter metals, more accurate machine tools, and improved scientific knowledge, led to British steam engines generating over 70% of European horsepower by 1840. Watt's contributions also included a method for copying documents and the concept of "horsepower" as a unit of mechanical energy.

Limitations of Water Power

Water power, while historically significant, was limited by geographical location, seasonal variations, and the speed of water flow, restricting its application in industrial processes.

Early Steam Engines (Savery and Newcomen)

Thomas Savery's "Miner's Friend" (1698) and Thomas Newcomen's engine (1712) were early steam engines primarily used for draining mines, but they were slow and inefficient.

James Watt's Steam Engine

James Watt's 1769 invention revolutionized the steam engine by converting it into a prime mover capable of powering machinery in factories, marking a pivotal moment in industrialization.

Further Developments in Steam Engine Technology

After 1800, steam engine technology advanced further with improved metals, more accurate machine tools, and increased scientific knowledge, making British steam engines a dominant source of power in Europe.

Canals and Railways

Canals were initially constructed to transport coal to cities, as waterway transport was cheaper and faster than land transport for bulk goods. James Brindley's Worsley Canal (1761) significantly reduced coal prices by facilitating transport from mines to Manchester. Canals, often built by landowners to enhance the value of their properties, created marketing centers and spurred the growth of towns like Birmingham, which benefited from its location at the confluence of a canal system. The period of "canal-mania" (1788-1796) saw numerous new projects, with over 4,000 miles of canals built in 60 years. Railways emerged as a superior alternative to canals in the 1830s, offering year-round, cheap, and fast transport for passengers and goods. Combining iron tracks (replacing wooden ones) with steam engines, railways took industrialization to a new stage. Early locomotives like Stephenson's Rocket (1814) and The Blutcher (1814) demonstrated increasing power and speed. The first railway line connected Stockton and Darlington in 1825, followed by the Liverpool-Manchester line in 1830. The congestion, weather limitations, and slow speeds on canals made railways increasingly attractive. Britain saw rapid railway expansion, with thousands of miles of track built between 1830 and 1850, boosting the coal, iron, and construction industries and connecting most of England by 1850.

Canal Construction and Impact

Canals were initially built to transport bulk goods like coal, reducing costs and facilitating urban growth. They also served as catalysts for new town development at their confluences, with thousands of miles constructed between the late eighteenth and mid-nineteenth centuries.

Invention of the Steam Locomotive

The development of the steam locomotive, spearheaded by inventors like Richard Trevithick and George Stephenson, revolutionized transportation by offering fast, cheap, and year-round movement of goods and passengers.

Development of Railways

Railways emerged as a more convenient alternative to canals, with rapid expansion in Britain from the 1830s onwards, significantly boosting industries reliant on coal and iron and connecting vast regions of the country.

Problems with Canals and the Rise of Railways

Congestion, weather dependency, and slower speeds on canals made railways a more attractive option. The rapid growth of railways in Britain spurred further industrialization by increasing demand for coal, iron, and labor.

Who Were the Inventors?

The individuals responsible for the technological breakthroughs of the Industrial Revolution were often not highly educated scientists but rather intuitive thinkers and persistent experimenters. Few possessed formal training in physics or chemistry until the late nineteenth century, well after the initial inventions. Their success stemmed from determination, curiosity, and a thirst for knowledge, supported by England's intellectual environment, including numerous scientific journals, published papers, traveling lecturers, and "coffee houses" that fostered the spread of ideas. Many inventors, like John Kay and James Hargreaves in the cotton industry, came from skilled trades such as weaving and carpentry. Richard Arkwright was a barber and wig-maker, Samuel Crompton lacked technical skill, and Edmund Cartwright, initially aiming for the clergy, knew little of mechanics. In contrast, steam engine inventors like Thomas Savery (army officer), Thomas Newcomen (blacksmith), and James Watt (mechanically inclined) had some relevant knowledge. John Metcalf, the road builder, was blind, and canal builder James Brindley, though poorly literate, possessed remarkable memory and concentration. These individuals, driven by practical needs and ingenuity, were key to the revolutionary changes of the period.

Lack of Formal Scientific Training

Many inventors of the Industrial Revolution lacked formal scientific education, relying instead on intuition, practical experience, and persistent experimentation to develop their groundbreaking innovations.

Role of Intuition and Experimentation

Determination, curiosity, a thirst for knowledge, and practical experimentation, rather than a deep understanding of scientific principles, were often the driving forces behind the inventions of this era.

Social and Intellectual Environment in England

England's intellectual climate, with numerous scientific journals, public lectures, and coffee houses, fostered the spread of knowledge and encouraged inventors, even those without formal training.

Determination and Luck over Scientific Knowledge

Success in invention often depended more on an inventor's persistence, interest, curiosity, and even luck than on their application of established scientific knowledge.

Changed Lives

The Industrial Revolution brought about profound changes in the lives of millions, resulting in both increased prosperity for some and severely degraded living and working conditions for many, particularly women and children. While wealth, incomes, and productive efficiency increased dramatically, this came at a significant human cost. Families were broken, people were displaced to new addresses, cities became degraded, and working conditions in factories were appalling. The rapid growth of cities, with the number of cities having over 50,000 inhabitants rising from two in 1750 to 29 in 1850, outstripped the provision of adequate housing, sanitation, and clean water. Newcomers lived in overcrowded slums near factories, while the wealthy moved to cleaner suburbs. Workers in industrial cities had significantly lower life expectancies than villagers, with high child mortality rates, often from water or air pollution-related diseases like cholera and tuberculosis. Work in factories, with long hours, strict discipline, and frequent punishment, was a stark contrast to the varied, less rigid work patterns of rural families. Women and children were preferred for factory work due to their lower wage demands and suitability for operating machinery. Children, small enough to navigate cramped factory spaces, faced dangerous conditions, often leading to injuries or death from exhaustion or machine accidents. Coal miners, including children, endured perilous environments with risks of cave-ins and explosions. Despite the potential for increased financial independence for women, this was often negated by humiliating working terms, high rates of child mortality, and life in squalid urban slums.

Social and Economic Costs of Industrialisation

While industrialization led to increased wealth and efficiency, it also resulted in broken families, degraded living conditions in overcrowded urban slums, and appalling working conditions for millions, particularly women and children.

Urbanisation and Slums

The rapid growth of cities due to migration from rural areas outpaced the development of infrastructure like housing, sanitation, and clean water, leading to the proliferation of overcrowded and unhealthy slums near factories.

Working Conditions and Lifespans

Factory work involved long hours, strict discipline, and dangerous conditions, leading to significantly lower life expectancies for urban workers compared to villagers, with high rates of child mortality due to disease and workplace accidents.

Child Labour and Women Workers

Women and children were extensively employed in factories, particularly in the cotton industry, due to their lower wages and suitability for operating machinery. They faced harsh conditions, long hours, and dangerous work environments, despite potentially gaining some financial independence.

Dangers in Mines

Coal mines were extremely hazardous workplaces, with risks of roof collapses, explosions, and injuries. Children were often employed in dangerous tasks like opening mine doors ('trappers') or carrying coal ('coal bearers') due to their small size.

Protest Movements

The early decades of industrialization coincided with the spread of new political ideas from the French Revolution, emphasizing "liberty, equality, and fraternity." These ideas inspired collective action and demands for democratic rights. In England, political protest against harsh working conditions and the denial of voting rights to the working population grew. The government responded with repression, passing Combination Acts (1795) that banned unauthorized public meetings and incited hatred against the government, and later the Six Acts (1819) to further restrict political activity. Despite these measures, protests continued against "Old Corruption"—privileges linked to the monarchy and Parliament. Workers engaged in food riots (1790s-1840s) to protest high prices and in machine-breaking movements like Luddism (1811-17), where workers destroyed power looms and threshing machines they believed threatened their livelihoods. Luddites also demanded minimum wages, regulation of child and female labor, and the right to form trade unions. Peaceful protests, like the Peterloo Massacre gathering in Manchester (1819) demanding democratic rights, were brutally suppressed. However, the growing awareness of the need for parliamentary reform eventually led to the repeal of the Combination Acts (1824-25) and a recognition of the need for a more representative House of Commons.

Influence of the French Revolution

The ideals of "liberty, equality, and fraternity" from the French Revolution inspired movements for democratic rights and collective action against harsh working conditions and government repression in industrializing Britain.

Political Protest and Repression in England

Workers agitated for political rights, including the right to vote, facing government repression through acts like the Combination Acts and the Six Acts, which banned public meetings and restricted protest.

Food Riots

Throughout the country, from the 1790s to the 1840s, workers engaged in food riots, seizing stocks of bread and selling them at affordable prices to protest high costs and the exploitation of profit-hungry traders.

Resistance to Machinery (Luddism)

The Luddite movement (1811-17) saw workers destroying machinery, such as power looms and threshing machines, which they believed threatened their jobs and livelihoods. They also demanded minimum wages and the right to form trade unions.

Demands for Democratic Rights

Peaceful gatherings, like the one at St. Peter's Fields, Manchester (1819), demanded democratic rights, including political organization and freedom of the press. These were suppressed, but the need for reform was recognized, leading to the eventual repeal of restrictive acts.

Reforms Through Laws

The government's response to the harsh conditions of industrial labor, particularly for women and children, evolved through a series of legislative acts. An Act in 1819 prohibited the employment of children under nine in factories and limited work hours for those aged nine to sixteen to 12 hours daily, though enforcement was weak. Following intense worker protests, the Factory Act of 1833 improved regulations, allowing children under nine only in silk factories, limiting hours for older children, and establishing factory inspectors to ensure compliance. Further agitation led to the Ten Hours' Bill in 1847, limiting the workday for women, young people, and eventually male workers to 10 hours. These laws initially applied to the textile industry. The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned children under ten and women from working underground, prompted by the Mines Commission's findings of worsening conditions in mines. Despite these laws, enforcement remained challenging due to poorly paid, corruptible inspectors and parents falsifying children's ages to secure income.

Factory Acts for Children and Women

Legislation, beginning in 1819 and strengthened in 1833 and 1847, aimed to regulate child and female labor in factories, setting age limits for employment and limiting working hours, although enforcement remained a significant challenge.

Mines and Collieries Act

The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned the underground employment of children under ten and women, addressing the particularly dangerous conditions in the mining industry.

Enforcement Challenges

Enforcing these laws proved difficult due to poorly paid and often bribed factory inspectors, and parents who lied about their children's ages to allow them to work and contribute to family income.

The Debate on the ‘Industrial Revolution’

Historians debate whether the changes in Britain from the 1780s to the 1820s truly constituted an "industrial revolution." Some argue that industrialization was a gradual process, building on existing trends like increased factory concentration and wider use of money, rather than a sudden revolution. They also point out that large parts of England remained unaffected by factories or mines until much later, suggesting a regional rather than a national transformation. The impressive growth in cotton textiles, based on non-British raw materials and export markets, with limited links to other industries and scarce use of metallic machinery or steam power until later, is questioned as "revolutionary." The sharp growth in imports and exports after 1783 was partly due to the recovery of trade with North America after the War of Independence, starting from a low base. Indicators suggest sustained industrialization occurred more significantly after 1815-20, a period affected by the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. These wars diverted capital from investment in machinery and infrastructure towards military expenditure, and disrupted trade. Investment in capital formation and productivity increased more steadily after 1820. The term "industrial revolution" is also seen as limiting, as the transformation extended beyond the economic sphere to society, creating new classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletarian working class. By 1851, half the population lived in towns, with a significant proportion of urban workers in industry, signifying a more profound societal shift.

Gradual Nature of Industrialisation

Some historians argue that industrialization was a gradual process, building on existing trends, rather than a sudden, revolutionary break from the past.

Regional Impact of Industrialisation

It is noted that large regions of England remained largely untouched by factories and mines until well into the nineteenth century, suggesting that the term "industrial revolution" might be more accurately applied to specific regions rather than the country as a whole.

Challenges to the 'Revolutionary' Narrative

The growth in certain industries, like cotton textiles, relied heavily on external factors (imported raw materials, export markets) and lacked extensive use of metallic machinery or steam power until later, prompting debate about whether this period truly represented a "revolution."

Impact of Wars and Investment

The wars fought by Britain from 1760 to 1815 diverted capital from industrial investment towards military spending and disrupted trade, suggesting that sustained industrialization and productivity growth were more evident after these conflicts, particularly after 1820.

Broader Societal Transformation

The term "industrial revolution" is considered limited as the changes extended beyond the economic sphere to society, leading to the prominence of the bourgeoisie and a new class of urban and rural proletarian laborers, fundamentally altering social structures.